Click each topic below to reveal concise, exam-focused notes.
Living organisms exhibit organization, metabolism, growth, reproduction, response to stimuli, homeostasis, and evolution. These shared characteristics define life.
Use examples from diverse organisms to illustrate these traits.
The scientific method is a systematic approach to inquiry that includes observation, hypothesis formulation, experimentation, data analysis, and conclusion.
Highlight how controls and variables ensure the validity of an experiment.
Genetic variation within populations provides the material for natural selection and evolution. Factors such as mutations and gene flow lead to diverse adaptations over generations.
Include examples like antibiotic resistance to illustrate evolution.
Ecology examines interactions between organisms and their environment, including food webs, energy flow, nutrient cycling, and the impact of human activities.
Diagram ecosystems and discuss key ecological processes.
Cells vary widely among organisms. Prokaryotic cells are simple and lack a nucleus, whereas eukaryotic cells have complex structures with specialized organelles.
Contrast the cell types with clear examples.
This section details the internal organization of eukaryotic cells—nucleus, mitochondria, ER, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, etc.—and explains their functions.
Label and study diagrams to memorize each organelle’s role.
Bacteria are unicellular, prokaryotic organisms. They reproduce asexually and play crucial roles in nutrient cycling, but some can also cause diseases.
Discuss both beneficial and pathogenic roles.
Amoeba are unicellular eukaryotes that move by forming pseudopodia. They serve as models for studying cellular movement and ingestion.
Include the process of phagocytosis in your answer.
Viruses are infectious agents that require host cells for replication. They contain genetic material (DNA or RNA) and a protein coat, and they can cause disease.
Explain why viruses are not considered fully living.
Fungi are eukaryotic organisms (yeasts, molds, mushrooms) that play essential roles in decomposition and symbiotic relationships. They have a distinct mode of nutrition compared to plants.
Contrast fungal nutrition with that of plants.
Genetic crosses, using Punnett squares, predict the inheritance of traits by considering dominant and recessive alleles.
Practice with monohybrid and dihybrid crosses, and always label your diagrams.
Genetic engineering involves modifying an organism’s DNA using techniques like recombinant DNA, CRISPR, and gene cloning. It has diverse applications in medicine, agriculture, and research.
Discuss both the scientific process and ethical implications.
Diffusion is the movement of molecules from high to low concentration, while osmosis is the diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane. Both are vital for cellular function.
Include diagrams to illustrate these processes and factors affecting them.
Food consists of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals. It provides energy and materials for growth, repair, and metabolism.
Discuss the role of each nutrient and their importance in the diet.
Enzymes are catalysts that accelerate biochemical reactions. They work on the lock-and-key principle and have optimal conditions such as specific temperatures and pH ranges.
Describe how enzymes lower activation energy and include examples like digestive enzymes.
Respiration is the process by which cells convert glucose and oxygen into ATP, releasing carbon dioxide and water. It includes glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.
Differentiate between aerobic and anaerobic respiration with appropriate diagrams.
This topic covers the taxonomic classification of organisms and the basic principles of heredity, explaining how traits are passed from parents to offspring.
Memorize the taxonomic ranks and use clear examples to illustrate heredity.
DNA stores genetic information in a double helix structure, while RNA plays a key role in protein synthesis. Understand nucleotide pairing, replication, transcription, and translation.
Include diagrams to illustrate these processes.
Cell division occurs via mitosis (for growth and repair) and meiosis (for sexual reproduction), ensuring genetic continuity and diversity.
Practice drawing and labeling the stages of mitosis and meiosis.
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants convert light energy into chemical energy. It involves light-dependent reactions and the Calvin cycle within chloroplasts.
Be sure to label a chloroplast diagram and explain the key stages.
This topic details the anatomy of flowering plants, including roots, stems, leaves, and reproductive structures, explaining their roles in photosynthesis and reproduction.
Practice labeling diagrams of a flower.
Plants respond to stimuli such as light (phototropism), gravity (gravitropism), and touch (thigmotropism) through hormone regulation (auxins).
Discuss how these responses benefit plant survival.
Vegetative propagation is asexual reproduction through mechanisms like cuttings, runners, and tubers. It produces clones of the parent plant, ensuring genetic consistency.
Emphasize its agricultural applications.
Sexual reproduction in flowering plants involves the formation of male and female gametes, pollination, fertilization, and seed development. The structure of the flower is key to this process.
Label a diagram of a flower’s reproductive parts.
This topic discusses the vascular system in plants: xylem transports water and minerals, while phloem distributes sugars. It also covers how plants store food and exchange gases through stomata.
Link these processes to overall plant health and survival.
Homeostasis refers to maintaining a stable internal environment despite external changes. It involves regulatory processes such as temperature control and water balance.
Use examples like human thermoregulation to illustrate the concept.
The lymphatic system, a component of the immune system, transports lymph to remove toxins and supports immunity through lymph nodes and vessels.
Discuss its role in both waste removal and immune defense.
Blood is a fluid tissue composed of red and white blood cells, platelets, and plasma. It transports oxygen, nutrients, and waste, while also playing a key role in the immune system.
Be familiar with the functions of each blood component.
This topic details the structure of the heart and the function of arteries, veins, and capillaries in circulating blood throughout the body.
Practice diagram labeling and explain the systemic vs. pulmonary circuits.
Excretion is the process of eliminating waste from the body. In humans, the kidneys filter blood to produce urine, which helps maintain fluid and electrolyte balance.
Focus on the structure and function of the nephron.
The human defence system, part of the immune system, protects against pathogens through innate and adaptive responses including white blood cells, antibodies, and lymphoid organs.
Highlight the differences between innate and adaptive immunity.
Human breathing involves the mechanics of inhalation and exhalation, facilitating gas exchange in the lungs through the alveoli.
Include a diagram of the respiratory system with emphasis on the diaphragm.
Nutrition studies the intake and utilization of food, covering macronutrients (carbohydrates, proteins, fats) and micronutrients (vitamins, minerals). It is essential for energy production and overall health.
Discuss the effects of nutrient deficiencies on health.
The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves. It controls and coordinates bodily functions by transmitting electrical signals.
Study the structure of neurons and the process of synaptic transmission.
The human senses (sight, hearing, taste, smell, touch) enable the perception of the environment. This topic covers the basic anatomy and physiology behind each sense.
Prepare to explain how sensory signals are processed by the brain.
The endocrine system regulates body functions through hormones. It includes glands such as the thyroid, adrenal, and pituitary, which release hormones that affect metabolism, growth, and reproduction.
Memorize major hormones and their functions.
This section details the human skeletal system, which provides structure and protection, and the muscular system, which facilitates movement.
Review diagrams of the human skeleton and muscle groups.
Human reproduction involves the structure and function of the reproductive systems, fertilization, and embryonic development. Both male and female systems have distinct roles in this process.
Focus on the anatomical differences and hormonal regulation.
This section provides key definitions for vital biological terms such as homeostasis, metabolism, genotype, phenotype, and adaptation. Mastery of these terms is essential for exam success.
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